Особенности словообразования в английском и русском языках

РОССИЙСКИЙ  УНИВЕРСИТЕТ  ДРУЖБЫ  НАРОДОВ





Институт иностранных языков





Кафедра теории и практики иностранных языков







	УТВЕРЖДАЮ

	Зав. кафедрой теории и практики иностранных языков

	______________к.ф.н., профессор 

	«______»_______________2016 г.











КУРСОВАЯ  РАБОТА

на тему



«Особенности словообразования в английском и русском языках»













Разработчик

Студент группы 

Студенческий билет №

_____________________ «______»_______________2016 г.



Руководитель

к.ф.н., профессор, академик МАНПО



Научный консультант

старший преподаватель

кафедры теории и практики иностранных языков 

_____________________







Москва 2016

PEOPLES’ FRIENDSHIP UNIVERSITY OF RUSSIA





Institute of Foreign Languages





Department of Foreign Languages in Theory and Practice







	APPROVED FOR PRESENTATION

	The Head of the Department of Foreign Languages in Theory and Practice

	__________________Ph.D. Prof.

	«______»_______________2016











COURSE PAPER





« Features of Word Formation in the English and Russian Languages »









Submitted by

_____________________

Student’s ID №

Full-time course

«______»_______________2016



Course Paper Advisor

PhD, Professor

_______________________



Scientific Advisor

__________________Ph.D. 

Department of Foreign Languages in Theory and Practice









Moscow 2016

CONTENTS



INTRODUCTION	3

CHAPTER 1. CONCEPTS OF WORD-FORMATION	4

       1.1 The nature of language change…………………………………………………………..4

	       1.2 Basic aspects of word - formation ……………………………………………………….5

	       1.3 Peculiarities of semantic change………………………………………………………...11

CHAPTER II. ASPECTS OF WORD-FORMATION IN MODERN ENGLISH	14

	       2.1 Word-formation in the English language	14

	       2.2 Processes of word – formation in English	17

CHAPTER III. WORD-FORMATION IN MODERN RUSSIAN	23

	       3.1 Word-formation in the Russian language	23

	       3.2 Processes of  word-formation in Russian 	25

CONCLUSION	31

REFERENCES	32






INTRODUCTION

           It is well–known that any language is a necessary means used by various people to exchange information and contact with each other. Human beings apply language to express their thoughts, ideas and emotions. In other words, language is an essential tool of interaction among people of different cultures. All known languages have their own unique features. Moreover, all languages always change.  A large number of new words appear every year.  It is especially important for linguists and school teachers always to be in the learning process and   improve their knowledge of foreign languages.  They must pay special attention to the new words and enrich their vocabulary. It is very important to increase our lexicon in order to convey compleх ideas and thoughts more accurately. One of the most effective ways to enrich vocabulary is to investigate word - formation. This branch of linguistics is known as a study of words and it deals with construction or formation of words in a definite language. We should consider the outstanding characteristics of word formation in both the Russian and English languages  as the present research may be helpful in our future specialization. 



            The object of our research is word formation understood as a branch of linguistic concerning the creation of new lexical units from existing elements.

The subject of the present research is peculiarities of word formation in English and Russian.

The aim of our research is to consider specific aspects of word formation in  English and Russian 

            According to the objective of this paper, we can identify the following tasks:

to define the basic concepts of word formation

to find out the means of word formation

to consider English and Russian word-formation ways and semantic changes

to analyze the principles of word-formation and semantic mechanisms in English and Russian.



           The methods used in the course paper to achieve the research targets are the following:

1. the study of scientific literature

2. the study of on-line recourses

3. descriptive method

4. comparative method



           The current paper deals with the study of word  formation in the English and Russian and will be helpful in a far better understanding of word formation in both languages.



 

CHAPTER1. WORD-FORMATION AND SEMANTIC MECHANISMS

The nature of language change

             Every human language changes. Unfortunately, it is absolutely inevitable process. Languages always develop and change adapting to the needs of their users. These changes occur very slow from year to year and people often hardly notice these changes. To understand better why these changes happen we should take a deeper look to people’s vital activity and consider possible causes of it. 

            For a long time people have been interested in the causes of language changes. The lexicon of people depends on their residence, age, social status, education and other aspects. People often pick up new words and phrases and integrate them into their speech. In this way the changes spread through the community. As a result, a huge number of new words constantly appear in all languages.

The appearance of new things and special terms in various spheres of human life also   require new words to describe them.  Another reason for changes in languages is that as teenagers and young adults interact with each other, their language also develops and grows to include new words and word – constructions. This social group, as a rule, does not think about the process of creating lexical units or some unique expressions. They use them without thinking to improve self - expression and draw attention. Any language is influenced by Internet users as well.  Internet communities develop their own culture, specific Internet language called slang. Thus, in consequence of high speed of the Internet and its capabilities, the new words  spread around the world and get into other foreign  languages. 

           Many of changes in languages occur because people have a tendency to borrow some new words from other languages or create them by shortening of existing longer words. 

           The fact is that the rate of changes varies due to internal and external factors. Some languages develop and change faster than others. It depends on how creative and loyal to the new most members of the community are and how often they use new forms of any word or phrase. If the majority of people tends to use only proper language and maintain stability, their language mutates not so quickly. This statement also can be related to some forms of pronunciation.  If some types of pronunciation are used most frequently, then these forms are absorbed and become the primary.

           It is no doubt that the changes of any language influence on all spheres of its use. The language changes may occur on different levels:  phonetic, lexical, semantic, and syntactic. 

Traditionally, there are two factors that can lead to the language changes: external and internal factors.  External sociolinguistic factors affect the language outside any language system. These factors are referred to social ones.  For example, technology with its ever-changing development is the best example of an external factor. Fashion can be referred to external factors. The imitation of certain words among various social groups spreads new fashionable and desirable terms. 

Internal psycholinguistic factors exist in the structure of the language itself and the minds of the speakers. These factors are known as linguistic psychological factors.

External factors cause external changes in a certain language. Some external changes may originate from the contact with other language communities. They are referred to as changes from outside. Internal changes may originate in the system of language itself.  There is an interaction between external and internal changes. However, external changes can lead to the appearance of internal changes.

Both external and internal changes can affect the grammar, phonology and lexicon of a certain language. 

            As we mentioned above, the language changes occur on different levels and influence on the following:

1) Phonology – is a branch of linguistics concerning with the sound system of  languages.

2) Lexis – the total quantity of  lexical units, including all forms having lexical meaning or grammatical function [6, p. 431]. 

	            3) Syntactic structure 



In order to examine how any language changes and new words are formed, it is especially important to consider what the definition and the history of word – formation are.

				

1.2 Basic aspects of word - formation

Thus, let us consider what word - formation is. Word formation is the particular branch of morphology in linguistics.  The means  in which new lexical units are formed and the various factors that govern the process of acceptance of lexical units into any language are taken as a matter of course by the ordinary speaker. However, to understand a word, it is no need to know how any particular word is formed, whether it is simple or compound. It is not necessary to know whether it can be decomposed into two or more components. We can use a new word when we realize what it means.  Besides, some words, as a rule, are more ‘transparent’ than otherы. For instance, in the words which are unfathomable or indescribable we are able to recognize the familiar samples of negative prefix + transitional word + adjective-forming suffixes on which a great number of words with similar form are formed.  The knowledge of this samples gives us an easier comprehension of their meanings. 

But in the case of neologisms, for example, such as tape-code, freak-out, beautician, we may not immediately be able to describe our reaction to them. For people who are not used to think much about languages, coinages in vocabulary may cause of arousing strong emotions and feelings. Many scholars accept the fact that the study of word-formation has not draw much attention for a long time as important branch of linguistics. Therefore, the collected data is not sufficient to make any accurate  statements. That is why this subject occupies one or two chapters of English grammar.  

  Some researchers define two major reasons why the study of word – formation has not been interesting to linguists:  its connections with the non-linguistic world of things and ideas and its ambiguous position between descriptive and historical research. 

The 19-th century is the age of great achievements in historical and comparative study of language. In those times all fields of science have experienced a period of remarkable advances and linguistics have claimed to be a science as well.   

 These claims based on the detailed study of formal correspondences in the Indo - European languages by comparative linguists and their understanding that such study depended  on the supposition of some natural rules of sound change.

It is well–known that the development of a language can be traced through written versions in the forms and meanings of its words. All languages are connected between themselves due to their possession of worlds. They have formal and semantic parallels with each other that cannot be attributed to ordinary chance or to recent borrowings.  In the case if sound changes were irregular and if forms of words were exposed random, unmotivated variation in process of time,  such statements would lose their actuality and  linguistic relations could only be established historically by additional linguistic facts.

The emergence and development of descriptive linguistics led to shift interest from historical studies. However, it did not effect the main conception of linguistics as a science dealing with detailed observation and  the thorough exception of all explanations depended on extra linguistic  factors.

The most competent scholar related to the new linguistics was Ferdinand de Saussure. He stressed the difference between external linguistic studied the effects on a language of the history and culture of its speakers and internal linguistics concerned with its system and rules. External linguistics, stimulated by Ferdinand de Saussure’ works, led to synchronic study of language, where a language itself was considered as a system of components definable in relation to one another which should be considered as a fixed state of affairs at a specific point of time. Internal linguistics was to be the main concern of scholars in the twentieth-century. As a consequence, there was no place for the study of the word – formation distinguished  by its close connection with the external world and its constant change. 

Another excellent book which presented a new approach to linguistics was written by Leonard Bloomfield. It reemphasized the necessity of a scientific approach, and the difficulties in the way of studying meaning. In that period, the basic interest was centered on the isolating of minimal elements of speech, the description of their distribution and organization into larger lexical units. 

Noam Chomsky was the first scholar who developed the idea of creativity earlier excluded from linguistics. His book “Syntactic Structures” was published in 1957 and introduced transformational generative grammar.

Nevertheless, word-formation remained a study ignored d by linguists for some particular reasons. 

The ability to create and understand new words and sentences is definitely a part of our linguistic competence, and so it is an evident lapse in transformational grammars not to have made provision for treating word-formation. ??The ?incongruence ?of ?grammaticality ?and ?acceptability ?that ? ?is ?far ?greater ?where ?words ?are ?concerned ?than ?where ?sentences ?are ?concerned. In fact, ?it ?is ?a positive aspect?, ? ??that ?the ?exercise ?of ?setting ?out ?the ?‘rules’ ?for ?creation ?words ?has ?till recently ? ?seemed ?to ?many ?linguists ?to ?be ?out ?of ?questionable ?usefulness. ?The ?cases ?on ?which ?we ?would ?have ?to ?describe ?the ?output ?of ?such ?rules ?as ?‘grammatical ?but ?non-occurring’ ?are ?quite ? ?numerous.  ?And ?there ?are ?further ?difficulties ?in ?treating ?new ?words ?like ?new ?sentences. ?A ?novel ?word ?(like ?handbook ?or ?partial) ?may ?attract ?undesirable ?attention ?to ?itself ?and ?appear ?to ?be ?the ?result ?of ?the ?breaking ?of ?rules ?rather ?than ?of ?their ?application. ? B?esides, ?the ?more ?habitual ?to ?the ?word ?we ?become, ?the ?more ?likely ?we ?are ?to ?find  ?it ?acceptable, ?whether ?it ?is ?‘grammatical’ ?or ?not.

It is of a great importance to define what ?exactly ?is ?a ?word. T??his ? ?simple ?question ?has ?bedeviled ?numerous ?word ?amateurs. ????The most ?logical ?way ?to ?rank ?a ?word ?is ?by ?the ?number ?of ?English-speaking ?people ?who ?can ?recognize ?it ?in ?speech ?or ?writing, ?but ?this ?is ? ?impossible ?to ?found out. ?

A ?detailed ?word - for - word ?ranking ?is ?an ?impossible ?procedure, ?but ?a ?ranking ?based ?on ?classes ?of ?words ?may ?be done??. ?Ross ?Eckler have ?proposed ?the ?following ?classes of words: ? a) ?words which ?appear ?in ?one ?more ?standard ?English-language ?dictionaries, ? b) ?non-dictionary ?words which ?appear ?in ?print ?in ?several ?various ?contexts, ?c) ?words which appear once in print ?inventing ?to ?fill ?a ?special ?need.

 ?Most ?people ?are ?willing ?to ?accept ?as ?words ?all ?uncapitalized ?unlabeled ?entries ?in, ?say, ?Webster's ?New ?International ?Dictionary, ?Third ?Edition ?(1961). ?Intuitively, ?people ?recognize ?that ?words ?become ?less ?admissible ?as ?they ?move ?in ?any ?or ?all ?of ?three ?directions: ?as ?words ?become ?more ?frequently ?capitalized, ?as ?words ?become ?the ?jargon ?of ?smaller ?groups ?(dialect, ?technical, ?scientific), ?and ?as ?words ?become ?archaic ?or ?obsolete. ?These ?classes ?have ?no ?definite ?boundaries?. ??Every ?linguist ??sets ?his ?own ?boundaries.

The ?second ?class ?of words includes ??non-dictionary ?words which ?appear ?in ?print ?in ?a ?range ?of ?sources. ?There ?are ?many ?non-dictionary ?words ?in ?practical ?use. Non - dictionary?? ?words ?can ?be ? ?classified ?into: ?a) ?neologisms ?and ?common ?words ?overlooked ?by ?dictionary-makers, ?b) names of ?geographical ?places ? ?c) given ??names ?and ?surnames.

Given ?names ?appear ?in ?the ?appendix ?of ?many ?dictionaries. ?Common ?given ?names ?? ? ? ? ?ought ?to ?be ?accepted ?as ?readily ?as ?common ?geographical ?place ?names ?such ?as ?Guatemala, ?but ?this ?set ?does ?not ?add ?much ?to ?the ?logical ?stockpile.

Family ?surnames ?at ?first ?sight ?appear ?to ?be ?on ?the ?same ?footing ?as ?geographical ?place ?names. ?However, ?one ?must ?be ?careful ?about ?sources. ?Biographical ?dictionaries ?and ?Who's ?Who ?are ?adequate ?references, ?but ?it is necessary to ??be ?cautious ?citing ?surnames ?appearing ?only ?in ?telephone ?directories. ?Once ?a ?telephone ?directory ?is ?supplanted ?by ?a ?later ?edition, ?it ?is ?difficult ?to ?locate ?copies ?for ?verifying ?surname ?claims. ?Further, ?telephone ?directories ?are ?not ?immune ?to ?nonce ?names ?coined ?by ?subscribers ?for ?personal ?reasons. ?A ?good ?index ?of ?the ?relative ?admissibility ?of ?surnames ?is ?the ?number ?of ?people ?in ?the ?United ?States ?having ?that ?surname. ?An ?estimate ?of ?this ?could ?be ?obtained ?from ?computer ?tapes ?of ?the ?Social ?Security ?Administration which ? ???issued ?a ?booklet ?providing ?the ?number ?of ?Social ?Security ?accounts ?associated ?with ?each ?of ?the ?1500 ?most ?common ?family ?names.

The ?third?? ?class ?of ?words ?includes occasionalisms ?????invented ?to ?respond ? ?specific ?needs.

These words ? ?appear ?only once?once. ?Some ?linguists? ???admit ?them willingly. ?In ?his ?book ?“Beyond ?Language”, ?Dmitri ?Borgmann argues ?that occasional ? ?words ?might ?plausibly ?be ?used ?in ?an ?English ?sentence, ?but ?does ?not ?assert ?any ?practical ?usage.?

The ?accessible ?linguistic ?literature ?on ?this ?subject ?cites ?different ?types ?and ?ways ?of word - ?formation ?. ?Earlier literary ?sources, ?articles ?and ?books ?on ?word-formation ?and ?vocabulary ?growth ?in ?general ?used ?to ?mention ?morphological types, ?syntactic ?and ?lexico-semantic ?types ?of ?word-formation. ?Nowadays? ?the ?classification ?of ?the word-formation ?types often? ? ?do ?not ?include ?lexico-semantic level of ?word-formation. ?Of ?interest ?is ?the ?classification ?of ?word-formation ?means ?based ?on ?the ?number ?of ?motivating ?bases ?which ?many ?scholars ?follow. ?A ?distinction ?is ?made ?between ?two ?large ?classes ?of ?word-building ?means. ? The first ?class ?of word – building means ?includes ?the ?means ?of ?making ?words ?having ?one ?motivating ?base ?( for example, ?the ?noun ?doer ?is ?composed ?of ?the ?base ?do- ?and ?the ?suffix ?-er), ?and the second ?class ??includes ?the ?means ?of ?building ?words ?containing ?more ?than ?one ?motivating ?base. ?They ?are ??based ?on ?compounding ?(for example, ?compounds ?letter-opener, ?e-mail, ?looking-glass).

Most ?linguists ?in ?special ???manuals ?devoted ?to ??word-formation ?consider ?as ?the ?chief ?processes ?of ?English ?word-formation ?affixation, ?conversion ?and ?compounding.

Besides ??these main processes, ?there ?is ?a ?number ?of ?minor ?ways ?of ?word – formation. ??For instance, ??back-formation, ?sound ?interchange, ?distinctive ?stress, ?onomatopoeia, ?blending, ?etc ?.

At present, some ?of ?the ?ways ?of ?word-formation? ?in ??English ?can ?be ?restored ??for ?the ?creation ?of ?new ?lexical units ?if there is an exigency???. ??Such ways of word–formation ?are ?called ?productive ?ways ?of ?forming ?words, ?other ?ways ?of ?forming ?words ?cannot ?now ?produce ?new ?words, ?and ?these ?are ?commonly ?termed ?non-productive ?or ?unproductive.

 Thus,?? ?the ?productivity ?of ?word-building ?ways, ?individual ?derivational ?samples ?and ?derivational ?affixes ?are ?defined ?as ?their ?ability ?of ?creation ?new occasional ?words ?which ?all persons ?who ?speak ?English ?find ?easy ??in ?understanding.?

 ?The ?term ?suggests ?that ??speakers ?make ?such ?words ?when t?hey ?needs ?them. ??Occasional words ?are ?formed ?from ?familiar ?language ?elements ?after ?familiar ?patterns. ?Dictionaries usually? ???do ?not ?list ?occasional ?words.

However, the ?separation ?between ?productive ?and ?non-productive ?ways ?and ?means ?of ?word-building ??is? not ?accepted ?by ?all ?scholars ?without ?reserve. ?Some ?scholars ?consider ?it ?necessary ?to ?define ?the ?term ?productivity ?of ?a ?word-building ?means ?more ?precisely. ?They ?suggest ???that ?productive ?ways ?and ?means ?of ?word-formation ?are ?only ?those ones ?that ?can ?be ?used ?for ?the ?creation ?of ?an ?unlimited ?number ?of ?new ?lexical units ?in ?the English ??language. ??Such ?divergence ?of ?opinion ?is ?responsible ?for ?the ?distinction ?in ?the ?lists ?of ?derivational ?affixes ?considering as ?productive ?in ?different ?books ?on ?English ?lexicology.

Nevertheless, ?recent ?research ?seems ?to ?prove ?that ?productivity ?of ?derivational ?means ?is ?relative factor ?in ?many ?aspects. ?Moreover, ??absolutely ?productive ?means do not exist and ?derivational ?patterns ?and ?derivational ?affixes ?possess ?various ?degrees ?of ?productivity. ?So ?it ?is ?important ?that ?conditions ?favouring ?productivity ?and ?the ?degree ?if ?productivity ?of ?a ?particular ?pattern ?or ?affix ?should ?be ?established. ?All ?derivational ?patterns ?experience ??structural ?and ?semantic ?constraints. ?The ?fewer ?are ?the ?constraints, ?the ?higher ?is ?the ?degree ?of ?productivity, ?the ?greater ?is ?the ?number ?of ?new ?words ?made ?on ?it. ?The ?two ?general ?constraints ?imposed ?on ?all ?derivational ?patterns ?are: ?the ?part ?of ?speech ?in ?which ?the ?pattern ?functions ?and ?the ?meaning ?attached ?to ?it ?which ?conveys ?the ?regular ?semantic ?correlation ?between ?the ?two ?classes ?of ?words. ?It ?means ?that ?each ?part ?of ?speech ?is ?characterized ?by ?a ?set ?of ?productive ?derivational ?patterns ?peculiar ?to ?it. ?The ?degree ?of ?productivity ?is  ?distinguished ?for ?derivational ?patterns ?and ?individual ?derivational ?affixes: ?a)with high degree of ?productive, ?b) ?productive, ???? c) and ?non-productive. The    TTTTT ?productivity ?of ?derivational ?patterns ?and ?affixes ?should ?not ?be ?identified ?with ?the ?frequency ?of ?occurrence ?in ?speech, ?even if ?there ?may ?be ?some ?interrelation ?between ?then. ?Frequency ?of ?occurrence ?is ?characterized ?by ?the ?fact ?that ?a ?great ?number ?of ?words ?containing ?a ?given ?derivational ?affix ?are ?often ?used ?in ?speech, ?in ?particular ?in ?various ?texts. ?Productivity ?is ?characterized ?by ?the ?ability ?of ?a particular? ?suffix ?to ?make ?new ?lexical units.

       ? ? ?There ?is also ?another ?interpretation ?of ?derivational ?productivity ?based ?on ?a ?quantitative ?approach. ?A ?derivational ?pattern ?or ?a ?derivational ?affix ?are ?considered ?as ?productive ?provided ?there ?are ?in ?the ?word-stock ?dozens ?and ?hundreds ?of ?derived ?words ?formed ?on ?the ?pattern ?or ?with ?the ?help ?of ?the ?suffix ?in ?question. ?Thus ?interpreted, ?derivational ?productivity ?is ?distinguished ?from ?word-formation ?activity ?by ?which ?is ?meant ?the ?ability ?of ?an ?affix ?to ?produce ?new ?lexical units, ? ?especially ?occasional ? ?or ?nonce words. ?For ?example, ?the ?agent ?suffix ?–er ?is ?to ?be ?classified ? ?as ?a ?productive ?and ?as ?an ?active ?suffix.  ?

During ?the ?last ?thirty ?years ?word-formation ?has ?been ?a ?quite ?interesting ?object of linguistics. ?Study ?of ?word-formation ?processes ?can ?give ?a huge number ??of ?new ?details ?to ?the ?linguistics, ?such as  ??the ?assumption ?of ?development ?tendencies ?in ?languages, ?could ?contribute ?to ?the ?enrichment ?and ?the ?development ?of ?language, ?and ?make? ?significant ?benefits ?to ?the ?study ?of ?foreign and ??native ?languages. ?However, ?for the reason of ??a ?lack ?of ?methodology ?and ?practically ?complete ?absence ?of ?the ?background ?study ?of ?this ?aspect, ?so ?far ?there ?is ?no ?single ?theory ?of ?the ?word-formation, ?so ?this ?field ?of ?study ?is ?still ?an ?open subject.?? ?

Nowadays, unfortunately, ? ?there ?is ?no ?complete ?theory ?of ?the word-?formation??. ?The ?problem ?is ?that ?word-formation ?has ?always ?been ?considered ?from ?a ?synchronic ?or ?diachronic ?point ?of ?view?.  English and American structuralism ? ?was ?not ?interested ?in ?the ?words ?as ??a lexical ?units and the main objects of this study were smaller units. As a result,  ?English ?grammar ???embraced ?the ?word only ?after ?the ?1970s. ?Transformational g?enerative ?grammar ?was ??not ?interested ?in ?the ?word as well, ?because ?it ?studied ?larger ?units. ?It ?was ?thought ?that ?the ?sentence ?was ?not ?composed ?of ?words ?but ?of ?morpheme ?units, ?smaller ?than ?a ?word. ?And ?the ?word ?itself ?did ?not ?matter as? ?it ?was ?not ?considered ?as a ?separate ?kind ?of ?unit. ?

The study ?of ?word-formation ?became of current interest? ?only ?in ?1970. ??Since ?that time, ?different ?linguists ?have ?considered ?the ?formation ?of ?words ?from ?various ??perspectives: ?from ?the ?phonological ?, ????the ?syntactic and ??the ?semantic ?points ?of ?view. ?

 Earlier we have considered the basic concept of word–formation in English and understood that this subject of linguistics deals with words. Therefore, it is also important to answer the question what a word is.

            As we know, all languages consist of words.  Words are linguistic units which are needed for building sentences.  Words belong to certain parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, proverbs. Words are syntactic elements in a sentence. The position of a word is determined by the syntactic rules of a given language.

There are four definitions of a word: in terms of sound structure, in terms of its internal integrity, in terms of meaning, in terms of sentence structure. 

First, we have to consider word in terms of sound structure. Every word in English usually has one main stress. The main stressed syllable is the syllable which is the most prominent one in a word. Prominence of a syllable as a function of loudness, pitch and duration, with stressed syllable being pronounced louder, with higher pitch or with longer duration than the neighboring syllables.

Longer words often have additional weaker stress or secondary stresses. Not all words carry stress. Phonological defined words is not always identical with orthographically defined words. Function words like, for example  articles are usually unstressed.

A word may be considered in terms of the integrity criterion. We know that if some  modification elements are added to a certain word it is done before or after the word, but not inside it. However, there are some cases when word integrity is violated.

          For example: daughter – in- law (singular), daughters- in- law (plural). The plural ending must be inserted inside the word.

Semantic definition of word means that word expresses an unified semantic concept.

Words can be divided into simple and complex. Every complex word consists of small units or morphemes. 



1.3 Peculiarities of semantic changes

Every word has ?a ?variety ?of ?meaning ?and ?connotations, ?which ?can ?be ?added and ?removed ?or even ?altered ?over ?time. ? ?The ?alteration ?of words ?meaning ?occurs ?because ?words ?are ?constantly ?used ?and ?what ?is ?intended ?by ?speakers ?is ?not ?exactly ?the ?same ?each ?time. ?If ?a ?different ?intention ?for ?a ?word ?is ?shared ?by ?the ??community ?and ?becomes ?established ?in ?usage ?then ?a ?semantic ?change ?has ?occurred. ?Semantic changes are changes in the meaning of a certain word. The study 

of semantic changes are related to etymology, onomasiology, semasiology, and semantics. The causes of semantic changes can be divided into extra –linguistic and linguistic causes. 

Linguistic semantic changes occur when a perfect synonym of a certain native word is borrowed from any other language.

 Many linguists and scholars attempt to classify semantic changes but the most complete and clear classification was suggested by German scientist Hermann Paul. It is based on the logical principle. He defined the following semantic changes: specialization, generalization, metaphor and metonymy, elevation and degradation, hyperbole and litotes.  These ? ?different ?types ?of semantic ?changes ??will ?be ?discussed ?further.

??All types ?of ?semantic ?changes are divided into primary and secondary types. Primary types are:

1) Generalization or ?Extension ?(?widening) ?is ?a ?type ?of ?semantic ?change ?when ?all ?features ?are ?dropped ?out. Generalization is a ???? process of ?semantic ?widening ?broadens ?the ?meaning ?of ?a ?word. A word or a phrase??  passes from a general sphere to specific one.? ?Linguistic?, ?psychological?,  ?socio cultural and cultural factors lead to semantic widening. ???

a)  ?‘cool‘  ?- ?the ?slang ?word ? which ?meant ?"a ?jargon ?of ?jazz ?musicians". Nowadays it ??is used as ?a ?general ?word ?to ?describe ?something ?preferable ?or ?interesting. 

b) ‘business’ – a word which meant busy or anxious. Over time it began to mean a corporation and occupation.??

2) Specialization or Narrowing is ? ???a process of transferring from a concrete meaning to abstract when the meaning of a certain word becomes less general than earlier?. ????? ??Specialization occurs when ???the ?meaning ?of ?a ?word ?shifts ?from ?the ?general definition ?to ?the ?specific ?. ? ? ? ? ??

a) ?‘girl‘ ?- ? original ?meaning : ‘?a ?person ?of ?any ?gender’, ?nowadays it ? ?means ?a ?female ?person. ?

b) ?‘wife‘ ?– ?original meaning  : ? ?‘a ?woman‘, ?over time it began to ?mean ?‘married ?woman‘. 

?3) ?Metonymy ?is ?? ?????a ?word ?or ?a ?phrase that can be ??used ?to ?describe ?another ?word ?or ?a ?phrase. ?Metonymy ?is used for ????describing ?something ?using ?not ?direct words. For example: ?

a) “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” ‘ears’ in this sentence mean that someone wants people to listen him more attentively. 

b) “The dish is quite tasty!” ‘dish’ can be referred to an entire plate of food.



4) ?Metaphor ?is ?a ?figure ?of ?speech ?in ?which ?a ?word ?or ?a ?phrase ?is ?used ?to ?describe ?something ?it ?is ?not ?literally ?connected ?to. Metaphor is a transfer of the meaning on the base of comparison. ?Ii is based on various types of similarities. For example:

a) The sea, the shore, the sky all turned to molten gold

b) Vast and blue and breathless, stretching to the edges of the world 



          The secondary types of semantic changes are:

           5) Elevation is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better over time.

           6) Degradation is a transfer of the meaning when is becomes worse over time.

           7) Exaggeration is a transfer of the meaning when exaggeration is used .

            8) Litotes is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker express the affirmative with negative or vice- versa.

     

          Thus, it is necessary to make a brief conclusion.           ??

           In the first chapter we have considered the basic concept of word - formation and found out the aspects of semantic changes. Then we have defined that all types of semantic changes are divided into major and minor types. We have defined and analyzed such semantic changes as generalization, specialization, metaphor, metonymy and others and presented some examples of them. 

          In the next chapter we are going to consider the peculiarities of word –formation in the English language.

                                                                                                                           



































CHAPTER II. PECULIARITIES OF WORD-FORMATION IN ENGLISH

2.1 Word-formation in the English language



            Word – formation is a branch of morphology which is concerned with the internal structure of words. This branch of linguistic has some peculiarities that should be considered thoroughly.

            From the point of view the morphological structure of English words it is possible to   distinguish the following groups:

            1) Simple words (root-words) which are the most frequent lexical units in English speech;

            2) Derived words are words where the meaning of the root is modified by the potential meaning of suffixes; Derived words are extremely numerous in the English language.

            3) Compound words where two or more stems are fused into semantic and structural whole;

            4) Compound derivatives or derivational compounds constituted by two or more roots modified by an affix;

Word and word–groups are distributed unequally among lexical stylistic groups in the vocabularies. Some words are more predominant than others. For example, most of new wоrds in the field оf science have derived and cоmpоund structure. The technical sectiоn оf the vоcabulary mostly consists of simple wоrds. The pоlitical section оf vоcabulary is rather pооr in wоrd-grоups. Besides the peculiarities of distributiоn оf various types оf wоrds, every type has its specific peculiarity in various lexical stylistic grоups оf the vоcabulary. 

	Words consist of morphemes. Different morphemes play different role in the process of word -formation. All morphemes are divided into two big classes: roots and affixes. Morphemes   also can be classified by:

	- the degree of their independence (free  and bound morphemes)

	- their frequency (recurrent or unique morphemes)

	- their activity ( productive or non –productive morphemes)

	- their position (prefix or suffix)

	Morphemes attached before the central meaningful element is called prefix. Morphemes attached after the root is called suffix. Suffixes and prefixes are very common in the English language. In some cases morphemes can be attached inside a word. This kind of morphemes is called infix.

	

	Term root means the indivisible central part of a word. Root does not have any suffixes or prefixes.

Оne оf the peculiarities  оf wоrd-fоrmatiоn is its  prоductivity. There .......................