Research is some scientific-technical texts

CONTENT

INTRODUCTION….………………………………………….………………….4

I NATURE OF THE STYLES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
1.1 Notion of Scientific and Technical Terminology..……………..………………6
1.2 General Features of Scientific and Technical Style…………………………...12
1.3 Nature of Scientific and Technical texts………………………………………21

II TRANSLATION PECULIARITIES OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TEXTS
2.1 Contemporary Translation Theories ...............................................................28 
2.2 Ways of translating scientific technical texts…………………………………34
2.3 Aspects of scientific and technical translation………………………………..37

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………..59

REFERENCES………………….……………………………………………….61



























INTRODUCTION
     At present time there is a great necessity to emphasize scientific-technical translation not only as a special kind of translation activity and special theory that investigates this kind of activity but as to assign scientific-technical translation a status of independent applied science.   
      From the linguistic viewpoint peculiarities of scientific-technical are spread on its stylistics, grammar and lexics. The main task of scientific-technical translation is a possibly clear and precise bringing of the information to the reader. This can be achieved by logical interpretation of actual material without explicit emotionality. The style of scientific-technical materials can be identified as formally logical.
     Scientific-technical texts reveal a great number of grammar peculiarities. The most typical lexical feature of scientific-technical materials is terms and terminology saturation as well as presence of lexical structures and acronyms. A special place in this materials are the texts oriented not only for this group language speakers but for representatives of a certain professional group with certain extralinguistic knowledge.
     The aim of the diploma paper is to define the peculiarities of scientific-technical translation.
     The following tasks were set up to identify translation peculiarities of technical materials:
1. Reveal and describe common linguistic basis of translation, identify what peculiarities of language systems and functions are the foundations of translation process.
2. Classify main kinds of translation activity.
3. Research peculiarities of scientific-technical materials.
4. Study specific English terminology required for professional translation.
5. Analyze grammatical and lexical peculiarities of scientific-technical texts.
     The object of this research is some scientific-technical texts . The subject of this research is the translation of scientific-technical materials.
     Methodology of the research: The aim achievement of the research and implementation of the set up tasks outlines the need in a number of theoretical and emperical methods of research (theoretical research, concretization, modeling, studying of specific literature, manuals, dictionaries).
     Theoretical value of the research results the investigation, detailization of the issues studied, theoretical value of the received results leads to the conclusion that this research finds out the necessity to emphasize scientific-technical translation as an independent applied science.
     Practical importance of the research: The material can be used for translation of scientific and technical texts. There are many translation methods. We need to follow some rule in translation. So the material could be used as guide of translation scientific-technical materials.
     The diploma paper consists of introduction, two chapters and conclusion. It is also provided with bibliography list.
     The introduction explains the urgency of the research theme, its theoretical and practical value, it identifies the object, subject, aim and tasks of the work.
     The first chapter of this research is devoted to the review of theoretical issues of translation, classification of translation and description of certain kinds of translation as well as types of texts being translated.
     The second chapter investigates scientific-technical terminology, morphological structure of terms (simple, compound, term phrases), it analyses the main approaches of their translation into English (use of equvalents, analogues, calking and transliteration), structure of scientific-technical terms, translation of full items, acronyms, company items and difficulties related to structure differences of compared languages.
     The results of the research are submitted in the conclusion of the work.




























 




I. NATURE OF THE STYLES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
1.1 Notion of Scientific and Technical Terminology 
     To understand thoroughly the nature of scientific and technical terminology, it is vital to spread a few words on behalf of terminology as well.
     The system of terminology in scientific style is not closed and constant as one might think. It is in constant development as the new scientific disciplines emerge and develope, as it has been already mentioned in the previous chapter.
     Words used in scientific prose will always have tendency to be used in their primary logical meaning. No words should be used in more than one meaning. Furthermore, terms are coined so as to be self-explanatory to the greatest possible degree. But in spite of this a new term in scientific prose is generally followed (or preceded) by an explanation. 
      Terminology is neither emotional nor ambiguous; the terms have narrow meaning and limited field of usability. However, according to recent English studies on lexical structures, there can be found a range of terms with a certain degree of expressivity, for example conductor alive in radio engineering. 
     It is either to enable to enter a world of exact sciences to masses of people, or it is caused by new scientific branches. In modern scientific prose, there is an exchange of words between particular fields of science. It is a result of collaboration among specialists in related sciences and it has proved successful in many fields. Even common words in unusual collocation may define a technical style. With regards to Mr. Turner, who expressed this thought in 1973, the tendency nowadays may even lead to more frequent occurrence of common words in scientific and technical English.
     Technical terms may pass into the general language. When this happens, a word used by a restricted group of people in a restricted situation becomes used more widely by more people and the reference will tend to be less concentrated or precise. 
     To conclude important facts about scientific and technical terminology and general features, there is a fitting explanation according to Knittlov?. Selection of lexical units also complies with the requirement of precise transmitting of thoughts and ideas. Scientific style is conceptual, typical word classes are nouns, possibly adjectives, and mainly technical expressions (terminology). Terminology is carefully chosen in order to be unequivocal. Subjective and expressive expressions generally do not occur in the style. The more scientific the style is, the more specific the terms are. In the particular scientific branches and their language we can get by with low lexical variety, therefore the index of repetition is quite high. According to the research, when comparing this style to other styles, it has the highest index. 
     Vocabulary is also stereotyped as well as syntax is. However, this feature is not negative, just quite the opposite; it supports the function of this style and it is convenient for precise and clear understanding of foreign language scientific text. 
     Stereotype of scientific and technical texts definitely is not the issue to argue about. Routine in using the same terminology in some fields can be easier but also misleading. Besides the terminology specific for a particular scientific disciplines, there are also used so called semiterms used in this style. Semiterms are words that, unlike the specific terms, occur in a broad range of meanings, they are common for number of scientific disciplines (process, effect, feature, to function, to operate, to effectuate, to modify, etc.). 
     Literary expressions aren’t a rare phenomenon in this style. Expressions such as negligible, obviate, propagate create a stiff impression, though. Typical expressions are even those of everyday usage such as use, show, call, write, consider, treat, maintain, etc.
     Preferring more typical expressions is in compliance with the efforts to achieve plain English. This characteristic feature is used in case when long and stiff expressions are grossly unfactual, deceptive, evasive, or highly confusing. 
     To conclude this chapter, it is understood that terminology varies significantly with particular field of science, e.g. aerospace, business/finance, automotive industry, chemistry, civil engineering, computers, electrical/electronic engineering, environment, law, medicine, military and nautical subjects, patents, social sciences, and many others.
     All the branches mentioned above have their own vocabulary and the terminology.
     This chapter aimed to describe the meaning of words and their proper usage. We have so far discussed the nature of scientific and technical texts
     The following parts deals particularly with the attributes of the language of official documents. It is also known and referred to as administrative style. It has been the issue for several years. Language of official documents, possibly known as administrative style is according to J.Mistr?k used for denoting the youngest and the least problematic functional style.
     Of all uses of language, the language of the law is perhaps the least
communicative. In fact, the legal writers use specific jargon which does not reflect the needs of general public. 
     In contrast, it is important to realize that the administrative style is not homogenous, and those texts which require the complete and correct understanding of a reader (or applicant) should be written in plain English, avoid ambiguous terms and difficult legal jargon. 
     From a linguistic aspect, this style is basically quite stereotyped, lexically and syntactically indigent and fairly primitive as far as the composition of the text is concerned.
     It is to be discussed where this style should belong and how it is classified. However, some stylists, for example J. Mistr?k, include administrative style among the scientific and technical style. 
     Impersonality is the first one from the range of other significant features of scientific and technical style. Another feature, from a viewpoint of syntax, is precise verbalization and logical sentence order. There is a mutual relationship and dependency between the two mentioned features. 
     Another feature is connected to precise sentence order – the ordering of the sentence constituents, or of the clauses within a sentence. Scientific style starts from the known theme, the conveyor of logical subject as the element bringing no new information but relating to the information mentioned before or known from the context, and proceeds to the rheme, the conveyor of logical predicate. However, if the subject is at the head of the sentence, its role is very strong so that the position adverbial becomes often a subject in English scientific style:
Functionality of legal subsystem leads to basic requirements for legal language such as semantic exactness, non-ambiguity, brevity, comprehensibility, 
Besides the special nomenclature characteristic of each variety of the style, there are certain features common to all varieties:
• the use of abbreviations, symbols, contractions,
• the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning, 
• no words with emotive meaning except those which are used in business letters as conventional phrases of greeting or close, as Dear Sir, Yours faithfully.
     The distinctive properties appear as a system. The style is not recognizable only through vocabulary. The syntactic pattern of the style is as significant as the vocabulary though not perhaps so immediately apparent. 
     It is necessary to realize that today the administrative style is much more varied than it was before, because the communication of private companies differs significantly from the official authorities. [18,p.22] 
     When discussing the legal text from the viewpoint of complexity of sentences, it is possible to declare that in the English legal style the use of complex sentences prevails, as well as the use of declarative sentences. Usage of interrogative and exclamatory sentences is very rare. Most of the legal sentences are designed according to the formula: “If x is valid, then z will be valid as well”, i.e. before something could possibly happen, it must comply legally with certain conditions, for example: “Thereafter if no renewal fee is received and no extension of life is requested, the patent will cease.” 
     Besides the fact that English legal style shows frequent use of complex sentence, certain formula, it can be considered from the viewpoint of using nouns in language.
     According to Knittlov?, legal English is highly nominal. Semi-clauses are often used.
     Postmodification is much preferred in nominal phrases, because it expresses the relationship explicitly by using many prepositions, therefore it guarantees correct understanding and prevents imprecise or mistaken interpretation. (e.g.: “...for grounds for protesting the allowance of any claim contained in the application…with an explanation of the relevance of such prior art to the allowed claims…”). Usage of determiner “such” without indefinite article (“such title of interest”) is also very typical. Intensification adverbs “very” and “rather”, common in other styles, do not appear in legal language because of their vagueness. 
     As mentioned above, legal English style is highly nominal. Here can be listed some of them.
     Abstract nouns are frequent element in administrative style (“request, proposal, conditions, authority, provisions, advantage, and benefit”…). Verbs are usually chosen from a restricted group of verbs (“accept, require, agree, state, issue, register, specify constitute, command, perform, prevent, observe, cause, exercise, warn, remind”). Modal verbs are used, usually “shall or “may” + passive infinitive (for example “shall be constructed”, “may be revoked”), where “shall” always expresses the obligatory consequence of the legal statement (“the patentee shall have and enjoy the whole profit”).
     Traditional feature of this style is reflected in usage of archaisms (“hereinbefore, heretofore, hereunder, aforesaid”) and formal words and phrases such as “duly, during the term of years herein mentioned, graciously pleased” .On the other hand, Old and Middle English words (aforesaid, forthwith, hereafter, heretofore said, thenceforth, thereby, theretofore, whereby, witnesseth) are no longer in general usage
     Another interesting feature is the occurrence of pair-synonyms (“Terms and
conditions, conditions and provisions, use and exercise, described in and by the following statement, obtained if and when”). Roman influence cannot be avoided as well. It has a very strong position in administrative style. A lot of French terminology has been borrowed (“assurance, sign, extension, condition, patent, date, revocable, contract, cause, application, benefit, accept, condescend to the request”). [19,p.38]
     Different branch of legal style is represented by the style of diplomacy (documents used in diplomacy), which tends to have sometimes pathetic feeling and proclamative nature and it is very similar to publicistic style. Other genres are announcement genres – instructions, notices, ordinances, and the style of business. 
     Business style stands as a clearly recognized genre of administrative style with a whole range of specific features that we can encounter mainly in business correspondence. It consists of:
• inquiries
• offers
• orders
• invoices
• claims and complaints
• dunning letters and plenty of various regulations, forms etc.
     When translating official documents, it is necessary to get informed about appropriate terminology, established phrases and formulas specific for the given style in the target language. As far as the fundamental function of official style is to convey information – relevant and contents related – as precisely and clearly as possible, then formulas often play the role of terms. A translator needs to take this into consideration and to avoid any attempt to achieve linguistic and lexical variety, to modernize the style or to make it more accessible. Quite the opposite, a translator should hold on to such expressive means that are used in similar target language documents even if they differ slightly or considerably from the source language expressive means. 
     The features of some texts in legal style such as wordiness, lack of clarity, pomposity, and dullness can be considered negative. 
     To avoid the above mentioned negative features, legal translators are now encouraged to strive for linguistic purity and their primary task is to produce text that promotes uniform interpretation and application of the single instrument. 
     The chapter introduced main features of legal styles such as impersonality, lack of emotional load, logical sentence order, ordering of constituents within a sentence, and particular language means used in this style. Legal style is, as well as English language highly nominal. Business style has been mentioned as well. It can be easily recognized by the business correspondence where it is yours. Among them are inquiries, offers, orders, invoices, claims and complaints, and dunning letters. The next chapter will discuss the legal text from the viewpoint of terminology.
     Legal Terminology
     To complete the discussion about the style of legal documents, this chapter focuses on the legal terminology. It will try to answer a few questions. First of them is what is the most distinctive and recognizable about the legal terminology and the second is what the most frequent lexical units are in legal style.
     Mi???kov? mentions some other peculiarities of the style of official documents here. At the level of lexis the most striking feature is a special system of clich?s, terms and set expressions by which each substyle can easily be recognized (e.g. I beg to inform you, I beg to move, provisional agenda, the above-mentioned, hereinafter named, on behalf of, private advisory, Dear Sir, We remain, your obedient servants, etc.)
     In fact, each of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style. Thus in finance we find terms like extra revenue, taxable capabilities, liability to profit tax. In legal language to deal with a case, summary procedure, a body of judges, as laid down in can be found. Likewise other varieties of official language have their special nomenclature, which is conspicuous in the text, and therefore easily discernible.  Among the most frequent lexical units used in legal style are : [20,p.85]
• Common words with uncommon meanings: action – law suit, avoid – cancel,
hand – signature, presents – this legal document, said – mentioned before.
• Latin words and phrases: affidavit, alias, alibi, corpus delicti, per stirpes, ejusdem generis, ex post facto, in personam, lex loci actus, nolle prosequi, quasi, res gestae, retraxit, sui juris, vis major.
• Words derived from French: many now in general use, e.g. appeal, assault, counsel, plaintiff, verdict, and others such as demurrer, easement, estoppels, fee simple, lien, tort.
• Technical terms with precise and well-understood meanings: appeal, bail, contributory, negligence, defendant, felony, injunction, libel.
• Less precise terms and idioms, in standard use in daily legal discussion (legal argot):
alleged, issue of law, objection, order to show cause, strike from the record, superior court, without prejudice.
• Formal or ceremonial words and constructions in written documents and in spoken courtroom language: signed, sealed, and delivered; Whereas…(in contracts), You may approach the bench; Comes now the plaintiff; Your Honour; May it please the court; I do solemnly swear…;The truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.
• The conscious use of vague words and phrases to permit a degree of flexibility in interpretation: adequate cause, as soon as possible, fair division, improper, malice, nominal sum, reasonable care, undue interference.
• The use, conversely, of words and phrases to express precise meaning: irrevocable, in perpetuity, nothing contained herein.
     Legal terminology was summarized in this chapter by means of broad classification of the most frequent legal terms in English language. Therefore, it can be concluded that legal terminology consists mainly from common words with uncommon meanings, Latin and French words, technical terms, formal, ceremonial, etc.
     Basically, the terminology of legal style consists of clich?s, terms and set expressions. They are mostly constant. It may be caused by the rigid nature of legal style that does not undergo radical changes most of the time.
Among the most frequent lexical units used in legal style are :
• Common words with uncommon meanings: action – law suit, avoid – cancel,
hand – signature, presents – this legal document, said – mentioned before.
• Latin words and phrases: affidavit, alias, alibi, corpus delicti, per stirpes, ejusdem generis, ex post facto, in personam, lex loci actus, nolle prosequi, quasi, res gestae, retraxit, sui juris, vis major.
• Words derived from French: many now in general use, e.g. appeal, assault, counsel, plaintiff, verdict, and others such as demurrer, easement, estoppels, fee simple, lien, tort.
• Technical terms with precise and well-understood meanings: appeal, bail, contributory, negligence, defendant, felony, injunction, libel.
• Less precise terms and idioms, in standard use in daily legal discussion (legal argot): alleged, issue of law, objection, order to show cause, strike from the record, superior court, without prejudice.
• Formal or ceremonial words and constructions in written documents and in spoken courtroom language: signed, sealed, and delivered; Whereas…(in contracts), You may approach the bench; Comes now the plaintiff; Your Honour; May it please the court; I do solemnly swear…;The truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.
• The conscious use of vague words and phrases to permit a degree of flexibility in interpretation: adequate cause, as soon as possible, fair division, improper, malice, nominal sum, reasonable care, undue interference.
• The use, conversely, of words and phrases to express precise meaning: irrevocable, in perpetuity, nothing contained herein.
     Legal terminology was summarized in this chapter by means of broad classification of the most frequent legal terms in English language. Therefore, it can be concluded that legal terminology consists mainly from common words with uncommon meanings, Latin and French words, technical terms, formal, ceremonial, etc.
     Basically, the terminology of legal style consists of clich?s, terms and set expressions.
They are mostly constant. It may be caused by the rigid nature of legal style that does not undergo radical changes most of the time.

1.2. General Features of Scientific and Technical Style
     Scientific and technical style will be viewed from the aspect of different features. Scientific and technical style has some distinctive characteristics from which the most important are the use of terms, objectivity, accuracy and expertise . In terms of language means, the constructions of the gerund and participle are used to make the text more condense and precise. Parentheses also frequently occur. 
     The first and most noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utterances with a clear indication of the interrelations and interdependencies. 
     Logical sequence of utterance is definitely important to comply with the following general features.
Second distinctive feature is as well the use of terms specific to each given branch of science. Each scientific field of human activity generates the greatest amount of new words. As a result of constant efforts to discover essence of things and phenomena, there is a need to name new concepts subsequently by means of coining new words. 
     Third characteristic feature of scientific style is what we may call sentence-patterns. They are of three types: 
• postulatory
• argumentative
• formulative
     There are some other features of scientific prose such as the use of quotation and references, the frequent use of foot-notes, digressive in character, and the impersonality of scientific writings.  Impersonality is required to preserve the character of the style which should be “invariant to all observers”. Impersonality can be achieved by means of:
• using passive constructions,
• using general pronoun we,
• using mostly a third-person style (to be discussed later),
• using abstract nouns formed from verbs and adjectives
Now let us have a look at the usage of passive voice.
     The usage of passive suppresses the author’s role and exclusively aims to describe the facts and phenomena. It appears also in cases where not only the agent but also agency  is irrelevant and the only thing that matters is the affected subject uses the following examples:
“This concentration is assumed to lie…”, “The method can be considered well suited for…” [7, p. 23] 
     In the example mentioned above, avoiding to express the agent of a text can be seen, because from the pragmatic aspect
     It is also possible to use active forms in combination with general pronoun we as a subject “we”, which refers more obviously to the author. It is common mostly in the texts of exact sciences. However, general we occurs more often in Kazakh technical texts than in English ones.
“We deduced, we observe, we define, we obtain, we can express, we see, we note, we consider, we assume, we have experimentally verified, we placed…” 
     The first way how to use quotations or references is done, second is very frequently used – third-person expressing, which is discussed into detail in the following paragraphs. In his practical manual “The Structure of Technical English” A. J. Herbert considers the following formula as the basic feature of scientific and technical style in contemporary texts. He introduces necessary expression to be used and uses them as convenient prefabricates. It can also be found synonymic phrases as the following example shows.
E.g.: It is of practical importance to establish. 
     New paragraph often begins with It is true that …, but… - It is obvious that…. Impersonal sentences of this type bring minimum semantic information and serve only as introduction of the sentence presenting the basic thought. E.g.: It is evident that investigations should be made for other exposure times. – It can be seen that the series limits…are in very close agreement.
     It is one of the features of scientific and technical style, because the presumptions and statements are usually not presented directly.  It is mostly caused by the fact, that newly revealed facts often need a great amount of time to be proved and that is why using general pronoun we ,in my opinion, is recommended only if the scientific phenomenon is confirmed and proved as a truth. The example demonstrates the situation where there is no certainty yet.
E.g.: …the difference does not appear to greatly affect the calculated value…
     The above-mentioned impersonal sentences have great occurrence of modal verbs (must, should, ought to, can, may, might). They have usually weaker lexical meaning when used in this style. According to J. A. Zverev they lose their lexical meaning mostly with verbs to note, to notice, to remark, to observe, to mention, partially also with the verb to say. It is necessary to realize that this modality is not subjective author’s attitude to conveyed facts, but this modality is objectified, which is in compliance with objectifying of scientific style. [8,p.67] 
E.g.: It may be noted… -It should be noted… -It might be remarked… -It ought further to be remarked.
     Russian linguists analyze English scientific style in many of their dissertation theses.
     They have noticed that would is used in every person of singular and plural to express repetitive action in the present, in the past and in the future: The instrument would give readings every ten minutes. Other works deal with the usage of the verb to seem that weakens the meaning of the following verb. This leads to understatement. In impersonal instructions should is usually used, which is less authoritative than a strict verb must, and that conforms the overall atmosphere of scientific and technical:
E.g.: Safety precautions should be observed at all times – The process of cooling should continue for several hours
     Therefore, the use of modal verbs is convenient when giving indirect instructions.
     Direct form of instruction is expressed in imperative, that is used also in hypotheses or mathematical formulas, e.g.: Assume a Cartesian coordinate system…-Let us examine a couple of cases – Let V be the vector analytic signal…
     Another basic and no less important feature of scientific language is objectiveness. Objectiveness of scientific language means is connected also with specific usage of language means named intellectualization or rationalization. It means direction to a concrete and precise expressing, which are helpful in suppressing emotionality or expressivity. 
     To conclude the chapter dealing with general features of scientific and technical style, it is better to present them again in a brief and concise form. The summary of main features of scientific and technical style is listed according to :
• Strictly logical syntax and sentence ordering
• Explicitness
• Objectiveness
• Impersonality
• Lack of emotional load
• Condensation
     After introducing main features in this chapter, a precise image of the features frequently used in this style has been developed. I suppose, that the extent to which particular features are represented in the given text can vary, which depends mainly on the purpose of scientific and technical text and on its recipient. There are even features listed in the summary, which could be discussed to a greater extent. Lack of emotional load appears to be with no doubt the general condition for scientific and technical texts. However, attempts to denote new concepts arising in the field of young and competitive scientific branches, equally reflect their dynamics and that is often transferred into their names . [9,p.98]
     Many definitions have been given to the word science. Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines science as:
1. (Knowledge obtained from), the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical world, especially by observing, measuring and experimenting, and the development of the theories to describe the results of these activities.
2. A particular subject that is studied using scientific methods.
In addition, The Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology gives the
following definition: Science is:
1. The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover
facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts.
2. The organized body of knowledge that is derived from such observations and
that can be verified or tested by further investigation.
3. Any specific branch of this general body of knowledge, such as biology,
physics, geology, or astronomy. Also, Miguel & Ramirez define science as “A way of exploring and explaining the natural world using a process designed to reduce the chance of being misled.”
     Following the same sense, science is defined by the Chambers Dictionary as “knowledge ascertained by observation and experiment, critically tested, systematized and brought under general principles”.
     Generally speaking, science is a word that refers to the organized approach of attaining knowledge, using a scientific method that helps to organize thought, procedures and then come into clear, faithful and reliable results, free of subjectivity and personal involvements.
     Webster’s new world college dictionary defines Terminology as follows:
1. the terms or system of terms used in a specific science, art, etc.; nomenclature
lexicographer's terminology
2. the systematic study of terms”
     On the other hand, Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines terminology as: “Special words or expressions used in relation to a particular subject or activity”. Terminology is viewed as a structured set of concepts and their labels in a particular subject field, it can be considered the infrastructure of specialized knowledge. Technical writing and scientific papers are thus impossible without properly using terminological resources. Scientifically speaking, it is concerned with the study and use of the systems of symbols and linguistic signs employed for human communication in specialized areas of knowledge and activities.
     Terminology refers to all specific terms and expressions used in a specific register as the terms: endocrine system, cells, and hormones which are specific terms generally used in scientific texts. Poem and Prose, however, refer mainly to literary texts.
     Scientific terms are not simple words; they are special and complex ones. Scientific terms are the most significant feature in science, they discriminate it from other registers (literary).
     These terms make scientific texts incomprehensible for lay people; they are directed to experts of the science. Thus scientists use them to dignify their written works, in that William Zinasser explained that each jargon has its own list of terms which lay people would not understand easily. He wrote “Every profession has its growing arsenal of jargon to fire at the lay man and hurls him back from its walls.” Furthermore, Ilyas claimed that scientific terminology varies from the regular and literary words since ‘they do not accumulate emotional associations and implications’.
     Scientific translation is mainly about translating terms in the fields of science and technology of all kinds, medicine, physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer sciences...etc from one language into another.    
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